Ethnography of the Māori People (New Zealand)

 Ethnography of the Māori People (New Zealand)

Environment

New Zealand is an island country located in the Southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two
main islands, the North Island and the South Island, along with several smaller islands. The weather is normally temperate, with temperatures averaging 50-60 degrees fahrenheit, but rising as high as 80 and as low as 28 degrees fahrenheit in various parts of the island. New Zealand receives an extreme amount of sunshine, with the sunniest areas receiving about 2,400-2,500 hours yearly. New Zealand also has less ozone and little air pollution, making the UV rays especially strong. New Zealand can receive anywhere from 14-47 inches of rainfall annually, varying by northern and southern parts of the island. The country’s annual average snowfall is 70 inches, mostly accumulating in mountainous regions, with lower altitude and city regions receiving little to no accumulation during winter months. 

Cabbage Tree

Māori people used to generally live in rural communities. However, this shifted during World War Two, and currently 84% of the Māori now live in urban areas and cities. About 10-15% of New Zealand is covered in local fauna, with 80% being native to the land and nowhere else. This is due to the isolated environment of the island which allowed it to evolve. The typical flora and fauna of New Zealand consists of beech forests, including five species of beech tree, chatham island forget-me-nots, coastal cress, various species of fern, and many, many, others. Due to the relative isolation of the island, most of the diversity of fauna was taken up by flightless birds. These include the kiwi, weka, takahē, and kākāpō. Some of the stresses of this environment include the amount of UV rays, the wetness of the environment, the earthquakes and volcanic activity.

Adaptations

One way that the Māori people have adapted the high amounts of UV rays is their darker skin tone. This increase of melanin production has allowed them to filter ultraviolet rays more effectively, leading to a decreased risk in skin cancer such as melanoma. Another physical adaptation that is common in Māori people is their prevalence to store more fat. The Māori people, prior to their settlement in New Zealand, were seafaring people. This culture of seafaring can lead to periods of food insecurity. This is one of the theories as to why Māori people are genetically predisposed to retain more fat stores than New Zealand Europeans.

One way the Māori people have adapted culturally to their environment in New Zealand is through the use of fishing. The surrounding ocean life in New Zealand left Māori people with the perfect outlet for subsistence. Fishing was a consistent source of food, especially for the Māori who were just arriving to the island after a long journey by canoe. Fishing remained reliable despite differing weather conditions, and the Māori made specialized tools for the activity. 

Matira (fishing rod)

The tools the Māori people developed to be able to fish efficiently are also a cultural adaptation. There were many different tools used for fishing, including the kupenga (net), aho (line), matau (hook), matira (fishing rod), pātia (spear), tāruke (pot), hīnaki (trap) and pā (weir).

The construction of nets is normally a sacred activity, and most were made of green flax. The base of the net is weighed down by māhē (stone sinkers), while gourds or lighter woods are used as pōito (floats). These nets varied in size, some being handheld and the largest being about 1.6 kilometers (almost 1 mile) long. The lines were made of dressed flax fiber and twisted into cord, leading them to be very sturdy. The hooks were often made from wood, stone, bone, or shell. Sometimes a sharp piece of bone on a line, called a gorge, was used. This was designed to get caught in a fish’s throat when pulled. Māori also used pots made from young mānuka stems and bent around a frame of supplejack vine and mānuka and filled with bait to catch crayfish. 

Māori also built wharepuni (sleeping housing) to shelter from the sun and rain. These wharepuni were traditionally made from timber, rushes, tree ferns and bark. They usually had a thatched roof and earth floors. These were not the only buildings Māori constructed, as they also built pātaka (storehouses), kāuta (cooking houses) and wharenui (meeting houses). All of these structures provided shelter from the environment, either for oneself, or for materials and food being stored.

Language 

The Māori language is called Te Reo Māori and is a member of the Polynesian languages, a sub-group of the widespread Austronesian language family. Te Reo Māori was originally only a spoken language, and was passed down by stories, myths, and legends. Māori also communicated via embedded symbolic meaning in craving, knots, and weaving instead of written language. Missionaries attempted to write down Te Reo Māori in 1814, but the language was not proficiently systemised until 1820 by Professor Samuel Lee of Cambridge University, along with the chief Hongi Hika and his junior relative Waikato. Literacy rates increased quickly in the 1820s, with many

Ko te Karere o Nui Tireni

Māori teaching themselves and their families to read and write in Te Reo Māori, and the first Māori newspaper, Ko te Karere o Nui Tireni, being published in 1842. Some unique traits of Te Reo Māori include its phonetic system, which includes five vowel sounds and ten consonant sounds. It is also known for its melodic quality, which influenced the oral traditions including songs and stories. Another significant feature of Te Reo Māori is its use of macrons (tohutō) to indicate long vowel sounds, which can change the meaning of words. Due to English settlers and language suppression, by 1860 English became the official language of New Zealand, and Te Reo Māori was rapidly dying out. By the 1980s, fewer than 20% of Māori knew enough Te Reo Māori to be considered fluent. Despite this, the language survived, and many groups formed to petition for and revitalize the language, leading to Māori language day, and later Māori language week, to be recognized in 1975. Te Reo Māori was recognized as an official language of New Zealand under the 1987 Māori Language Act. There are now many more institutions working to recover and revitalize Te Reo Māori, but there is much more work to be done to ensure the long term survival of the language.

Gender roles

Māori culture has two main genders, Wāhine (woman), and Tāne (man). However these are not the only recognized genders. Someone that would normally be considered transgender in western culture may be referred to as “irawhiti,” and would be described as someone born with a wairua (spirit) of a different gender than assigned to them at birth, or someone whose gender changes or is associated with change. They could also be ‘whakawāhine,’ meaning creating or becoming a woman, or ‘tangata ira tāne,’ meaning someone with the spirit or gender of a man. ‘Ira kore’ is also a term, and is used to describe someone that does not identify with any gender. 

Gender roles in Māori culture are often defined by tapu and noa. Tapu is a term used to describe something sacred or restricted, but it is not as simple as that. Tapu is a strong force in Māori life and can come in both good and bad forms. Noa is often described as the opposite of tapu, but these terms are not linear or binary so this description is not always accurate. In any case, noa refers to that which is common, not sacred, and unrestricted. Wāhine in Māori culture are responsible for much of the process of whakanoa (ritually removing tapu or spiritual restriction). Wāhine traditionally performed the

Maori Woman Performing Karanga

karanga, the first cry of welcome when visitors come to a marae (sacred communal space or meeting ground) in order to whakanoa (remove tapu from) the visitor. Tāne on the other hand, were traditionally charged with whaikōrero (giving speeches or formal address) during pōwhiri (welcome ceremony). There was often a risk of violence, or at least associated risk, with delivering whaikōrero, which is one of the reasons it falls in the tāne, or male, domain, as they are often viewed as protectors while wāhine are nurturers with the ability to bring life. These roles are not clean cut, though. Gender roles were not set in stone in Māori culture. For example, a woman was traditionally not allowed to be a priest, but could partake in priestly communication with family gods in the home, which will be touched on in a later section. Most restrictions in the case of gender were explained through tapu, with men and women having different relationships with this energy, and thus different tasks that are more or less appropriate. 

Subsistence

Traditional Māori subsistence practices consisted of a mix of hunting, foraging, fishing, and

Maori Horticulture

horticulture. Some of the first Māori that migrated to New Zealand brought with them kūmara (sweet potato), yams, taro and tī pore (cabbage tree). They cultivated these, along with native plants, in their gardens. Māori have a variety of horticultural knowledge that they implemented while growing their own food. A great portion of this knowledge lies in the soil they planted in. For Māori there is a holistic approach known as ki uta ki tai (literally “from the source to the oceans”) applied to resources.The whenua (land) is the resource that sustains plants and therefore sustains the people as well. Māori also believe in the concept of ‘mauri,’ the natural energy or life force that exists in all things and activities. These cultural beliefs lead to a sense of respect and reciprocal nature towards horticulture, which results in a very sustainable practice of farming pre-colonization. Māori often used the “slash and burn” technique in their horticultural practices. They also practiced land rotation, usually farming a crop in a specific spot for no more than three years in a row, then allowing the plot to rest for seven to fourteen years. This allowed plots to regrow native flora and regain soil fertility. Māori did not traditionally have an irrigation system when it came to farming, but they did often drain areas that were swampy or flood-prone to cultivate more crop sites and limit water overflow from rivers or streams. Along with this, Māori also placed shells and stones in crop beds to assist with drainage. 

Aside from horticulture, Māori also hunted for food, primarily the many bird species that predominated New Zealand prior to human settlement. These included the Moa, which was driven to extinction, as well as weka, kererū (wood pigeons), tūī, whio (native ducks), native geese, takahē and numerous seabirds. The kiore (Polynesian rat) and kurī (Polynesian dog) were also highly regarded food sources for the Māori. Sealing, whaling, and fishing were also important for Māori subsistence, as well as shellfish and eels, which gained more importance after the extinction of the moa in 1445. While both Māori men and women contributed to community subsistence, men were the primary hunters and farmers while women foraged other foods and prepared meals, these gender roles were not very strict however. Many of these subsistence patterns changed during and after colonization, which began in the early 19th century, with the introduction of crops like corn and wheat, and bread quickly becoming a staple in Māori diets. Colonial forces, also greatly limited farming land and resources, as well as lead to the extinction of more land species.  

Economy 

Maori Man with Musket

The Māori economy has gone through many shifts pre and post-european contact. Māori commonly engaged in a reciprocal trading system where gifts were given with the expectation of receiving a gift in return. They also engaged in trade with other Māori tribes across the island, with inland tribes often trading surplus crops and berries for fish from tribes closer to the coast. When Europeans settled in New Zealand in the 1840s, Māori occupied most of the land for farming. Māori began trading surplus food with Europeans in return for muskets and other tools. Europeans also brought with them potatoes and pigs, which the Māori quickly traded for and began cultivating themselves. With Europeans often away on whaling and shipping voyages, Māori became the main suppliers for their food stock while at sea. Some Māori also took up whaling and would bring back goods for gifts and trade. Māori began cultivating food especially for trade, even sometimes neglecting to properly feed the tribe and opting to trade their food, mostly for muskets, instead. This new arms race brought about unrest between tribes as well as Europeans. Māori also began buying shipping vessels and exporting their goods overseas. Eventually, European settlers began buying land from Māori people, as well as revoking their tribal ownership outright. Gradually, Māori lost their farms and resources. No longer able to subsist independently, Māori began laboring for European settlers in order to survive. European settlers allowed few Māori to enroll in education programs, but Te Reo Māori was banned in schools, and an emphasis was placed on Māori attending trade schools to prepare for farm work, not higher education. 

Marriage

Contemporary Maori Marriage

In Māori society, there are few ceremonial aspects of marriage for those that are not of high status. Māori culture is endogamous in marrying practices. Aside from the expectation of political marriages between different tribes, Māori traditionally married within their own Iwi (tribe), or hapū (sub-tribe). Within this endogamy system, some cousin marriage was also allowed as long as both individuals were the third generation from a common ancestor. Any closer relation was deemed as incestous and was highly condemned. Māori also commonly practiced polygamy, especially men of higher status taking multiple wives. It was also a semi common practice for a man to take his brother’s widow as a wife after he passed, whether or not he was already married. Marriage partners in Māori culture need to be approved by the Iwi, and oftentimes the whānau (extended family), of both sides. In lower status mariages, gifts are not common; in higher status marriages, however, there is much more ceremony involved. Marriages of higher status are usually arranged by the parents, often when both parties are infants. One chief will either go himself or send a messenger to the chief of another tribe. The party will bring gifts which they will bestow upon their arrival and ask for the betrothal of the other chief’s child. These proposals are often accepted, as it is seen as bad manners and insulting to reject the child of another chief of equal status. Feasts also often took place in times of engagement and marriage. Often the parents of one family would provide the feast for the marriage, and this favor would then be returned by the other family during the celebration of the couple's first child. Once married, the couple would usually join the husband’s house, although this was not always the case. Homosexual relationships of both men and women were very common in Māori culture pre-colonization, often being recorded in stories and art. Although there is little research on same sex marriages, homosexual couples were often celebrated, and there was little judgment regarding sexuality. This cultural view shifted in the wake of colonialism, where missionaries condemned homosexuality and censored many of the
stories and works of art that described homosexual acts and pairings, deeming them “indecent.” 

Kinship

In Māori culture, descent is claimed through both the male and female lines, tracing back to a common and respected ancestor that is commonly the namesake for the tribe. The paternal line is usually more recognized, but if the maternal line holds higher status, that is the line through which the family will be recognized. Inheritance is also claimed through both lines, and chiefhood can be achieved by both male and female descendants, although eldest sons are still considered more valuable and male leadership is far more common. If an eldest daughter has a younger brother, he will inherit chiefhood before she does. Family authority is placed in the hands of the elders, or grandparents, both male and female, as they are the storehouses of knowledge and highly respected. Naming patterns in Māori society place a large emphasis on birth order. For Māori, eldest children have more status than younger siblings, so this is represented in naming patterns. Eldest siblings are called mātāmua, and youngest pōtiki. Terms change for siblings depending on if they are a sibling to the same or opposite sex, and whether they are older or younger. Contrary to this distinction within siblings, aunts and mothers share a term, as do fathers and uncles, although sometimes a qualifier will be added to denote if the aunt/uncle is from a different line then the father of ego. Terms for cousins are the same as those for siblings, however, any children of a senior in their birth order will be regarded as a senior by the children of their parent’s younger siblings, regardless of the birth order between the cousins themselves. 

Maori Family Portrait

Social Organization 

Maori Rangatira

 Māori society is stratified with distinct social classes. These classes are rangatira and ware or tutua, and can be translated to aristocracy and commonfolk roughly. Social status is usually inherited, tracing back to a common founding ancestor. It is believed that everyone began as rangatira, and slowly as more younger children who do not inherit as much status married other younger children, a class divide occurred. There are also professionals in Māori society, called tohunga in their field, priests, tattooists, ect., that do not fall into either social class. Lastly there are slaves, both men and women, called taurekareka that are taken during military campaigns and fall below tutua in status. There is a degree of mobility within these ranks; rangatira commonly hold positions of power, and if they do not behave according to the expectations of the tribe they can be removed from this station. It is also possible for those of lower rank to marry the higher social class, as well as adopted children taking on the status of their adoptive family, regardless of their birth status, and children born of a slave and someone of status recognized as a child of the person of status and given their rank. 

Political Structure

Māori practice a tribal system headed by a chief. Chiefhood is usually obtained through the patrilineage as previously discussed. A chief can also be removed from his station if he loses the respect of the tribe. Chief’s are tapu, meaning they hold a level of sacredness that they and others must respect, as well as specific rules they need to follow for the safety of the tribe. An example of this is that the head is seen as the place in the body where the most tapu resides, so if a chief touches their lips to a cup to drink no one else may drink from that cup, for fear of negative effects and even sometimes death. Chiefs also hold a lot of mana, which can roughly be translated to power or prestige. It is believed that an eldest son (highest ranking of his siblings) is born with this mana and it is dormant. Once his father
dies, and he inherits his chief status, the dormant mana awakens. Māori live by a set of customary laws based on concepts such as mana (status or respect), tapu (sacred prohibitions), rahui (a form of tapu regarding food), utu (repayment for another’s actions whether negative or positive), and muru (a from of utu, usually involving the seizure of property as recompense for an offense). Utu is the main form of punishment (when carried out negatively), and the goal is to regain lost mana. It can take form as a raid, pillage, or in some cases a killing of another individual. It is normally only the parties directly involved in the original offense that take part in the organizing and practicing of utu, but tribe leaders can become involved depending on the severity of the offense. 

Violence 

One of the roles of violence in Māori culture is the aforementioned practice of utu. Another common form of violence is muru, which can take place as the plundering of homes, especially in cases of adultery. Family of the offended party will plunder the spouse’s home, often raiding gifts that they had provided the couple, as well as other goods. Goods that are taken are kept by the family and viewed as compensation for the offense. Unlike utu, muru does not invite retaliation from the other party. In the

Example of Utu

case of adultery, the offended has scarified their own mana (and that of their family) with their actions, and the family of the victim is simply seeking recompense. These actions of violence are viewed mostly positively within Māori culture, because they follow the values of tapu and mana. All violence enacted is within these boundaries of prohibitions and sacredness, and is often retaliation on someone who has broken this code. Should violence take place outside of these practices, it would be an offense, and would warrant a response, most likely muru or utu. 

Religion 

Māori religion does not have a definitive name. It is very complex and contains many different forms of spirituality. One form is the belief in tapu, mana, and mauri. Tapu does not have a direct translation, but can be defined as something sacred or prohibited. People can be born with tapu and places can also originate as tapu in nature. On top of this, rituals can be conducted to either place or remove tapu from a person, place, or thing. This commonly occurs before men go to war, where tapu will be placed upon them and removed once they return. Mana exists in all people, though some have more than others, and can be defined as status or honor. Higher born people, such as eldest sons and chiefs, will have more mana. Mana can be lost or gained through various actions, as previously touched on. Mauri is the energy that exists in all things and people, described as a vital spark. If a person’s mauri becomes too weak, they die. Māori also believe in a pantheon of gods. These gods exist in a hierarchical order: supreme, departmental, tribal, and family, although the supreme god is debated, so that will be covered last. These departmental gods include Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (earth mother) and their children Tāwhirimatea (god of the winds), Tāne (forests), Tangaroa (seas), Rongo (kūmara, cultivated foods and peace), Haumia (fern root and uncultivated foods) and Tūmatauenga (humankind and war). Tribal gods differ between different tribes, and often cover a similar domain as a departmental god, although with less power. 

An example of when a tribal god would be asked to watch over someone is during times of war. A tribe may worry that the other tribe they are warring with has already asked Tūmatauenga (god of war) for protection, so they would ask a lower level tribal god to look after their people instead, knowing that this god would not be busy or conflicted in the matter. Family gods are usually the spirits of children that were aborted or miscarried, and thus remain tied to the family. These gods are not very powerful and need a medium to denote their presence. Evidence for an all powerful, supreme god has been debated by scholars, with some believing there is only reference after contact with missionaries and others believing Māori have believed in a supreme god from the start. In any case, in current times there is evidence of a supreme god called Io that is credited with the creation of all things and has power over all other gods. 

A common creation myth for the Māori is as follows: Te Kore (chaos, or the void), Te Pō (the night), and Te Ao Mārama (the world of light) exist through time, shifting through different stages and order, the duration of each stage changing between tellings. Then enter Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (earth mother), who are trapped in an eternal embrace, with their children stuck in the darkness between them. Their children attempt to separate them, and Tāne (god of the forests) succeeds in separating his parents apart by laying on his back and kicking the sky and the earth apart. He then places rods between them to maintain the separation. After this, Tāne imbued both the godly aspect and the human aspect into Hineahuone, the first woman, who then gave birth to the rest of mankind. 

Ranginui (sky father) and Papatūānuku (earth mother)

Karakia, a term used to describe a way people communicate with the gods, can take many forms, often what we would describe in western society as rituals. One such ritual is tohi, wherein a priest bestows upon a baby boy his tapu and ensures it will remain for his lifetime. Another ritual is whakanoa, described in an earlier section, which is the act of removing tapu from a person or object and rendering it noa, or ordinary. Religion is integral to Māori social structure, legal system, and relationship to the world, and the culture would have a hard time functioning without this belief system. 

Art

There are many different expressions of art in Māori culture. One such artform is Waiata, which is a traditional song with many different subclasses for different occasions and expressions. One example is waiata aroha, which is a traditional song of love. Waiata were also performed in times of mourning, as rebukes, and even lullabies. One of the main functions of waiata is as a means to relay history to younger generations, especially in the case of Oriori (lullabies). Waiata goes hand in hand with haka, a traditional dance. Haka can also take many forms depending on the waiata it is paired with and the occasion in which it is being performed. One common form of haka is tūtūngārahu, a ceremonial war dance performed with weapons, usually judged by tribe elders to determine if the warriors are ready for battle. The origins of haka are credited to Tānerore, the son of the sun god. Tānerore’s dance is said to represent the shimmering and trembling of light in the hot air, and is usually embodied through dance by the quivering of hands. I’ve included a video link to an example of haka where this particular movement can be seen, as well as a more traditional example. (Haka example for competition. Haka example). 

Tā moko

The last example of Māori art I will include is tā moko. Tā moko is a traditional style of tattooing. It is associated with high status and is conducted by tohunga tā moko, which is an expert in the field. Tā moko is tapu, and both the recipient of the tattoo and the tohunga tā moko have to take precautions, such as tattooing in a temporary shelter away from the community so that it could be burned to the ground after the process was complete. Tā moko is given using traditional tools, such as a uhi, a chisel commonly made from the bones of sea birds, and pigment made from the charcoal from resinous trees. The designs used in Tā moko are a mix of tribally recognized and personal symbols that together tell the story of the person who possesses them. Placement of tā moko also reflects meaning and status, and men and women traditionally receive tā moko on different parts of their face and body. 

Each of these mediums reflect their religious context in a different way, with the sacred restriction placed on tā moko, to the origin of haka tracing back to a deity. Māori use song, dance, and body art to honor their deities and the world around them, translate their stories and history, and bless their tribe, among many other reasons. 

Cultural Change

Māori culture has gone through many changes, with colonial powers playing a major part. Some impacts that colonization has had include introducing money economy while simultaneously revoking Māori land ownership, causing Māori to be unable to subsist on horticultural practices. Also inducing a Christian belief system around gender and homosexualitay in tandem with censoring or destroying Māori art that depicts transgender individuals and homosexuality, and putting in place language bans
, causing Te Reo Māori to drastically decline and become an endangered language. Musket trading with colonists wreaked havoc between Māori tribes as well as conflict with foreigners. Though we cannot discount these vast negative effects, there have also been positive changes brought by colonial powers. Colonists brought with them to New Zealand different plants and animals that allowed Māori to greatly alter their place in the economy, even becoming the prime provider of food to seafarers. They were also introduced to more industrialized forms of sea travel, which allowed Māori to expand their export of goods. Colonial powers were also a driving force in Te Reo Māori adopting a written form, which ultimately added in its conservation and revitalization. 

Today Māori culture is undergoing a “revival.” Although still endangered, Te Reo Māori has been named an official language of New Zealand and more and more educational institutions are teaching through Te Reo Māori immersion. Māori culture is being recognized as prominent and important, with many organizations forming to strengthen tribal rights, assets, structures, and councils. There are also more studies including Māori people, who have been historically underrepresented, especially where medical statistics are concerned. 

Maori Now

Māori culture will never be the same as it once was pre-colonialism, but work is being done to try to ensure that the culture, people, and language do not disappear. Māori had an undeniable effect on New Zealand, and paved the way for all others that now settle there. Although this impact was not recognized for many years, Māori influence and importance is gaining traction as time goes on, especially in New Zealand, but also around the globe. 

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